idolatry—in order to use his judgment upon them in fulfillment of his covenantal purpose, just as he did Pharaoh in Exodus 4–14 (Rom 9:14–18). This raises a further possible objection, namely that national Israel did not opt to reject the gospel but were compelled to do so by God. Paul’s response is first to correct a misperception regarding the consequences of idolatry: national Israel has surrendered their humanity and are therefore subject to God’s judgment, like clay in the potter’s hand. Further,